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| 1 |
ID:
127801
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| Publication |
2013.
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| Summary/Abstract |
This paper is concerned with the development of national primary education regimes in Europe, North America, Latin America, Oceania, and Japan between 1870 and 1939. We examine why school systems varied between countries and over time, concentrating on three institutional dimensions: centralization, secularization, and subsidization. There were two paths to centralization: through liberal and social democratic governments in democracies, or through fascist and conservative parties in autocracies. We find that the secularization of public school systems can be explained by path-dependent state-church relationships (countries with established national churches were less likely to have secularized education systems) but also by partisan politics. Finally, we find that the provision of public funding to private providers of education, especially to private religious schools, can be seen as a solution to religious conflict, since such institutions were most common in countries where Catholicism was a significant but not entirely dominant religion.
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| 2 |
ID:
129408
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| Publication |
2014.
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| Summary/Abstract |
The famous Nicolo seal with a four-armed deity, having in his four hands a wheel, a mace, a ring like object and a globular thing, with a devotee standing by his side in respectful pose with folded hands, was
described by Cunningham in the Numismatic Chronicle as Vishnu, the deity and King Huvishka, the attending devotee. The Kushana identity of Huvishka was identified because of the affinities of headdress and garment.1 Right interpretation of the seal, however, was possible only after correct decipherment of the inscription by R. Ghirsman.2 The inscription, according to him, was in Tokharian script and in Tokharian language; it contained the names of Mihir (the Sun God), Vishnu and Shiva. But the devotee, according to him, was some unknown Hapthalite Chief, rather than the Kushana King Huvishka. Any way, irrespective of the identity of the devotee, the use of Tokharian script and language made it clear that composite cult of Shiva (Siva), Vishnu (Visnu) and Mitra was popular in Central Asia.
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| 3 |
ID:
134222
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| Publication |
2014.
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| Summary/Abstract |
Senegalese "conversion" to Shi'i Islam resulted from cosmopolitan interactions with West Africa's resident Lebanese population and Iranian revolutionary ideologies. Shi'i advocates spread their religious convictions through teaching, conferences, holiday celebrations, and media publicity. Key to their success are libraries full of Arabic and French texts from Iran and Lebanon. Inherent in Islamic education is the authority bestowed on those who are knowledgeable, and with the spread of religious knowledge through books, media, and the Internet comes a broadening of the scope of religious authority and resulting conflict with or accommodation of old political communities. Senegalese converts to Shi'i Islam use their literacy in Arabic and individually acquired libraries of Islamic legal books to bypass the authority of Sufi marabouts. Some keep their feet in both Sunni and Shi'i worlds, and their ability to compare religious texts of both traditions wins them disciples. Shi'i minorities claim autochthony and authenticity in Senegal through narrating revisionist historical accounts of the spread of (Shi'i) Islam to Africa. Conferences commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Husayn during the Shi'i mourning period in the month of Muharram target Sufi Muslims who also love the family of the Prophet. Shi'i leaders skillfully detach this foreign religious ideology from Middle Eastern politics and make this branch of Islam relevant to Senegalese through establishing religious centers as NGOs, which work to bring health care and economic development to neighborhoods in the name of Shi'i Islam.
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