| Summary/Abstract |
In wartime, border controls on the movements of individuals increase tremendously, because national authorities become additionally concerned that spies from an enemy state might seek to enter the country to gather information or conduct other covert operations. Historically, the need to identify potential enemies has led states to adopt instruments by which to associate a certain name with a place of origin. The best known of these tools is the passport. That a rudimentary form of passport was introduced as early as during the French Revolution to prevent counter-revolutionary agents from mingling with other travelers in order to safely cross borders is no coincidence. A similar control method was put in place during the Napoleonic Wars.1 Interestingly, serious passport control almost fell into disuse all throughout the 19th century, when economic prosperity and overall political stability positively encouraged free movement of individuals as a driving force for further development, only to be resumed as late as during the First World War, remaining permanent since then.2 In conflict zones, such controls are more stringent than in areas of the world where two or more states have created strong political and economic bonds. Europe's Schengen area, giving almost unlimited access across borders, is the most obvious example of discrepancy in the mobility of European and non-European citizens.
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