| Summary/Abstract |
Blue carbon ecosystems are diverse and highly productive coastal habitats (mangroves, seagrasses, and tidal marshes) that sequester large quantities of carbon and provide a suite of important ecosystem services (‘co-benefits’) for humans and the environment. These ecosystems are being threatened globally due to land-use change driven by expanding agriculture, aquaculture, coastal development, and pollution. Climatic impacts further threaten the resilience, functionality, and adaptability of blue carbon ecosystems. ‘Marine protected areas’ (MPAs) provide a statutory approach for protecting coastal and marine ecosystems, yet are unlikely to meet ‘additionality’ requirements. Whereas other effective conservation measures (OECMs) including community-based ‘locally managed marine areas’ (LMMAs) provide opportunities to enhance blue carbon conservation and restoration efforts. LMMAs likely deliver additional sequestration, although ensuring ‘permanence’ of carbon stocks may be more difficult to achieve. This review summarizes key approaches of blue carbon monitoring; governance systems; policy instruments; and investment pathways for conservation and restoration.
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