| Summary/Abstract |
In response to World War II's immense collateral damage from airpower, the United States implemented laws, policies, strategies, and technologies to protect civilians during war. When advanced technology began to promise pilot safety and precision, the public’s intolerance of military casualties transferred to an intolerance of foreign civilian casualties as well. As the military creates more collateral-damage safeguards, Americans grow more averse to operations endangering foreign civilians. Consequently, policymakers have less freedom to use force as needed, introducing a constraint on the use of force. As activity in cyberspace amplifies and space becomes a warfighting domain, increased “risk-free” warfare presents a heightened danger that this constraint will jeopardize national security.
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